The Paper, Part 1: The Medium Of Art
This article will explore the origins of paper and its evolution through history. This section aims to provide a broad overview of papermaking processes, laying both the technical and philosophical groundwork for Part II. In the second part, we will dive into photo paper coatings and how they drive value in today’s inkjet paper market.
Paper seems so ordinary that we rarely stop to think about it. But for photographers, artists, and art collectors, it’s more than just a surface. It’s a medium that makes the art itself. Understanding the history of papermaking and how it led to the photographic papers we use today is essential.
When we pick up a new hobby or passion, we eagerly dive into the details that deepen our understanding: nutrition and supplements for fitness, audio quality for music, optics and lenses for photography. Yet, paper rarely makes the list. It’s so common and basic, that we assume there’s nothing more to know.
Yet the journey from pulped plant fibers to a finely coated photo paper is an extraordinary tale of innovation and adaptation. By weaving together the historical evolution of papermaking with the specific demands of photography, we can better understand why certain processes and materials were developed, how they influence quality and price, and why coatings have become such a crucial battleground in modern inkjet photo paper manufacturing.
Without that knowledge, photographers and artists can’t make intentional choices in their craft.
Without that knowledge, collectors can’t fully connect with the medium that brings their favorite images to life.
Without that knowledge, we limit our development as artists or collectors, failing to recognize the creative expression and artistic legacy of papers. As a result, mediocre art gets produced and sold at a premium to unaware collectors. While really exceptional pieces go unnoticed, and true mastery remain undervalued. With more knowledge, this equation can change for the greater good, and raise the standard of art as a whole.
1.BEFORE PAPER: THE FIRST SURFACES FOR WRITING
People have been recording words and images on a variety of surfaces long before the invention of paper. If we exclude clay tablets, since they differ significantly from what we consider paper, then two of the earliest and most significant writing materials were papyrus, used in ancient Egypt as early as 3000 BCE, and parchment (or vellum), which emerged in the Middle East and Mediterranean around 2000 BCE.
Parchment is a general term for writing material made from animal skins, typically from sheep, goats, or calves. Vellum is a type of parchment, but it is considered higher quality and is made from the skins of animals like sheep, goats, or calves, was particularly well-suited for scrolls. It could withstand repeated rolling, unrolling, and handling, making it ideal for religious texts and other significant writings that required durability. In short: All vellum is parchment, but not all parchment is vellum. Vellum is simply the premium version of parchment.
Papyrus, on the other hand, was made by slicing the stalks of the papyrus plant into thin strips, laying them crosswise, dampening them, and pressing them together. The plant’s natural sap acted as an adhesive, fusing the strips into a durable sheet. Once dried, these sheets provided a reliable writing surface that has survived for millennia in Egypt’s arid climate.
While often referred to as paper, papyrus is not “true paper” by modern definitions. True paper involves breaking plant fibers down into a pulp—a wet, soupy mixture of fibers and water—before reforming them into a sheet. In contrast, papyrus uses relatively unaltered strips of plant material. To illustrate the difference, think of papyrus as being made by pressing intact strips together (like potato fries or chips that retain their shape), while paper involves mashing the fibers into a pulp (more like mashed potatoes) before creating a sheet. Though not a perfect analogy, it highlights the fundamental difference: papyrus relies on unaltered plant strips, while paper depends on thoroughly broken-down fibers.
While both animal skin and leaves can be used for writing with minimal alteration, paper is a fully manufactured creation. You won’t find paper in a tree or a cotton plant—it doesn’t exist in nature. Unlike papyrus or vellum, paper demands a transformative process. It is the result of human ingenuity—breaking down raw fibers, refining them, and reshaping them into a surface designed to carry ideas, images, and expression.
At the core if it, paper making process involves breaking plant fibers down into their most basic components - cellulose. These fibers are separated and dispersed in water to create a pulp, a slurry of fine fibers floating in suspension. A screen is then dipped into this pulp, lifting out a thin, even layer of fibers. As the water drains away, the fibers settle and interlace naturally. When dried, this forms a unified and durable sheet of interwoven fibers, which we recognize as paper.
The key to this process lies in cellulose, the structural component of plant fibers. Cellulose’s ability to bond and interlock when dispersed in water is what gives paper its strength and flexibility, distinguishing it from earlier materials like papyrus. This durability makes cellulose an excellent choice for papermaking, as paper can essentially be produced from any plant.
Now, before we continue, here’s a glossary of essential terms that will be important in the next section. This brief guide will help you understand the concepts and technical details ahead.
KEY TERMS
Pulp. Pulp is a soft, moist, and fibrous material made by mechanically or chemically breaking down raw materials such as wood, cotton, or recycled paper. It is the primary substance used in papermaking, serving as the base from which paper fibers bond together when pressed and dried.In papermaking, there are two main types of pulp: Mechanical pulp: made by grinding wood logs into fibers. It is cheaper but produces lower-quality, less durable paper. Chemical pulp: made by breaking down wood chips using chemicals (e.g., in the kraft or sulfite process), resulting in stronger, higher-quality paper fibers.
Cellulose is the main building block in the cell walls of practically all plants and trees. It’s a strong, fibrous carbohydrate that gives structure to leaves, stems, and wood. The purest form of cellulose are cottonballs. Yes, raw cottonballs that are forever linked with slavery and industrialization are the purest form of cellulose. In practice, papermakers often use cotton linters (the shorter fibers left on seeds after ginning) or recycled cotton textile scraps, but the cellulose in cotton bolls is perfectly suitable for papermaking once seeds and other impurities are removed. The difference between a cotton boll and, say, a tree trunk comes down to how that cellulose is arranged and combined with other substances. Cotton bolls have fibers that are almost pure cellulose, which is why they’re soft and easily spun into threads. In a tree trunk, the cellulose fibers are much more rigid because they’re interwoven with lignin and other compounds that give wood its strength. Thus, both tree trunks and cotton rely on the same cellulose “building blocks,” but their forms and properties differ depending on what other materials—like lignin—are present and how the fibers themselves develop.
Lignin is a complex organic polymer found in the cell walls of many plants that essentially acts as a glue, binding cellulose fibers together and giving woody plants their strength and rigidity, but also giving the trees unique properties like flexibility, strength, or elasticity. On average, the wood (excluding bark) of most trees is roughly 40–50% cellulose and 20–30% lignin by dry weight, with the remainder made up of hemicellulose and other compounds. Hemicellulose is a group of complex carbohydrates found in plant cell walls alongside cellulose and lignin. They are made from a variety of sugar monomers and help fill in the spaces between cellulose fibers, providing structural support and flexibility in the plant. Some hemicelluloses are removed during chemical pulping and bleaching (especially when aiming for very pure cellulose), but not all. In many papermaking processes, a portion of hemicellulose remains in the pulp, helping with bond strength and other sheet properties. For specialty or archival-grade pulps, more rigorous chemical treatments can further reduce hemicellulose content, but it’s rarely completely eliminated. While it’s not always 100% eliminated, alpha-cellulose generally contains only minimal residual hemicellulose compared to ordinary pulp.
Fibers. In plant biology and papermaking, “cellulose” refers to the actual polymer—long chains of glucose molecules that form the structural backbone of plant cell walls—whereas “fibers” are the physical, elongated cells (often containing cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose) that make up the tangible structure of wood, cotton, or other plant materials. Essentially, cellulose is the chemical substance that gives fibers their strength, while “fiber” is the broader term for the plant cells themselves. Think cells in human body as cellulose, and bones are fibers.
Rag paper. The terms rag paper, cotton paper, fiber paper, and rag cotton paper are often used interchangeably, but they emphasize slightly different aspects of the material. Rag paper specifically refers to paper made from recycled cotton or linen rags (textile scraps), which was the traditional source of fibers for centuries. Cotton or Fiber Paper is a broader category that includes any paper made from cotton fibers, whether those fibers come from rags, cotton linters (the short fibers left after ginning cotton), or virgin cotton sources. This term is common in contemporary contexts, especially in fine art or archival-grade paper. So while rag paper is a type of cotton paper, not all cotton paper originates from rags. Modern cotton papers are often made from linters (a byproduct of the cotton industry) rather than recycled textiles.
Alpha-cellulose is the high-purity, high-molecular-weight fraction of cellulose that remains undissolved when treated with certain alkaline solutions in the paper making process. Because it’s more chemically stable and contains longer, stronger chains than other cellulose fractions, alpha-cellulose is prized for uses like archival-quality papermaking and specialty products where durability and purity are critical. If alpha-cellulose is properly purified (meaning it’s free of lignin and acid) and the paper is buffered to maintain a neutral or slightly alkaline pH, it can match the archival quality of cotton-based “rag”-papers. Many archival-grade papers labeled “alpha-cellulose” have been processed to remove harmful impurities, so their longevity is effectively on par with cotton in most conditions. Cost wise they are on the same level as cotton papers, making them a premium segment.
2. COTTON: THE FIRST 2,000 YEARS OF PAPER
The earliest records of true paper production trace back to China around 2000 years ago, where paper was initially used for administrative purposes, wrapping, and even padding for fragile items. No one knows exactly when paper was invented—we only know based on what has survived, and that it was in China. One of the oldest surviving examples of paper is a hemp paper fragment, dated to around 179–41 BCE, discovered in a tomb near Xi’an. This artifact predates the “official” invention of paper attributed to Cai Lun in 105 AD, which is still debatable.
Sometime around that time, Chinese craftmakers discovered that fibers from mulberry bark and hemp rags could be shredded, soaked, boiled, and beaten into a mushy pulp. This pulp, rich in cellulose, was the key to the process. When a fine mesh screen or sieve was dipped into the watery slurry, a thin layer of fibers would catch on the surface, bonding as the water drained. After pressing and drying, the resulting sheet was strong, flexible, and remarkably versatile. The innovation hinged on cellulose’s unique property of retaining strength even when wet, enabling the fibers to interlace and form a cohesive sheet. This paper was absorbent and worked well for the delicate brush techniques in Chinese art.
Over time, Chinese artisans refined the process, experimenting with fiber blends, optimizing the beating of the pulp, and incorporating additives like sizing agents or fillers to improve the paper’s texture and performance. These advancements laid the foundation for the papermaking techniques that would spread across the world in the centuries to follow.
After nearly 700 years of Chinese dominance in papermaking, a new hub emerged in Samarkand (in present-day Uzbekistan), a key crossroads on the Silk Road. This led to the development of high-quality paper in Samarkand, made from linen and hemp, which became highly prized. By around 800 CE, Baghdad had adopted and refined these techniques even further, establishing itself as a major center of paper production in the Middle East and advancing the craft to new levels of sophistication. These advancements spread rapidly through the Islamic world, which played a pivotal role in preserving and advancing the craft. Islamic scholars and artisans not only embraced the Chinese methods but introduced significant innovations, such as starch-based sizing to strengthen and smooth the paper surface, making it more suitable for writing. As Islam expanded, so too did the knowledge of papermaking, reaching North Africa and eventually Europe.
Papermaking arrived in Christian Europe through Spain and Italy in the 12th century, following the routes of Islamic influence. Europeans, who had long relied on parchment—made from animal skins—for important documents, found it both costly and labor-intensive to produce. Cotton paper, by contrast, offered an affordable and scalable alternative, renowned for its durability and archival stability. Beyond religious texts, the Islamic world used paper to produce scientific, medical, philosophical, and literary manuscripts, which later found their way to Europe and contributed to the Renaissance.
The invention of the Gutenberg printing press in the 1450s was a transformative moment for paper. It created an unprecedented demand for affordable writing surfaces and revolutionized Bible production, making paper indispensable for spreading Christianity and increasing literacy. To meet the soaring demand, paper mills quickly sprang up across Spain, Italy, France, and Germany, relying on cotton and linen rags as their primary fiber sources.
Cotton-based paper can be made either from cotton linters (the fine fibers around the cotton seed) or by recycling old cotton textiles—hence the name “Cotton rag”.
When it comes to art, cotton papers were often used for sketches, drawings, and later for more finished works using watercolors. However, cotton paper wasn’t immediately compatible with oil painting, as oils would seep into the fibers and degrade the material. Instead, artists working with oils relied on wood panels or canvas, materials that could handle the heavier medium.
For roughly 400 years, there was little innovation in papermaking. Cotton and linen rags were the primary source of fibers for papers. Sheets were produced one at a time, and a skilled worker could produce 1,000 to 1,500 sheets per day. This labor-intensive method limited production scale and kept the paper pricing relatively high. Significant advancements came with the Industrial Revolution, which transformed papermaking into a faster, more efficient, and large-scale process.
In 1804, the Fourdrinier machine was invented. This revolutionary device introduced a continuous mesh belt that moved at high speed. Pulp was poured onto the belt, where water drained out, and the damp paper traveled through rollers that pressed and dried it, producing a near-endless roll of paper. The Fourdrinier machine increased papermaking speed by a factor of 100 times compared to previously manual methods and drastically reduced labor costs. This breakthrough made paper far more affordable.
3. FROM RAGS TO PULP: THE SHIFT TO WOOD-BASED PAPER
Handmade paper in the making: a vat of cotton pulp mixed with water, with wooden moulds and deckles ready to shape the fibers into sheets. This is essentially how all paper was made before the Industrial Revolution.
Though cotton rag paper was highly prized, it had one clear limitation: the supply of cotton. As literacy rates climbed, newspapers and books multiplied, and expanding bureaucracies demanded more written records, paper mills struggled to source enough rags to keep up with demand. Machines brought speed and efficiency, but scalability hit a wall—production was still limited by the availability of raw materials. The need for paper was growing, but the supply chain couldn’t keep pace.
This scarcity prompted scientists and industrialists to seek more abundant sources of cellulose, with wood emerging as the clear candidate. However, extracting cellulose from wood proved far more complex than simply tossing cotton scraps into a beater. The bark had to be removed, and non-cellulose components like lignin had to be addressed to produce a usable pulp. The early transition to wood-based paper required significant technological and chemical advancements within its first 100 years (1840–1940). The story of modern paper is the story of the Industrial Revolution and human inventiveness. It is a story of problem-solving—of overcoming material shortages, improving production methods, and pushing technology forward to meet the world’s growing demand for knowledge and expression.
Overcoming problem 1: using wood for paper making. Although wood is abundant, it is difficult to process into fibers suitable for papermaking without mechanical or chemical methods. Early techniques couldn’t efficiently break down wood fibers into a smooth pulp without causing brittleness. Yet it all changed in 1844, when Friedrich Gottlob Keller in Germany developed the first practical method for producing wood pulp through a mechanical grinding process, laying the groundwork for the mass production of wood-based paper. This breakthrough was soon followed by the development of chemical pulping methods, advanced bleaching techniques, and mechanized production systems. Together, these innovations transformed wood from a problematic and inconsistent raw material into the cornerstone of modern papermaking.
Overcoming problem 2: fragility of paper. Wood contains lignin, a natural binder that holds a tree’s cells together. While lignin gives trees their strength and flexibility, it becomes a major drawback in paper production. When exposed to light and air, lignin breaks down, causing paper to yellow and become brittle over time. This was a new problem that didn’t exist with cotton papers, which were naturally more stable and long-lasting. With the shift to wood pulp during the Industrial Revolution, the challenge was clear: how to remove or manage lignin to create durable, archival-quality paper.
Early attempts to make wood pulp involved mechanically grinding logs into a slurry, known as groundwood pulp, which retained much of the lignin. This process produced a cheap, brownish paper suitable for newspapers or packaging, where longevity was not a concern. Since newspapers didn’t need to last forever, mechanical pulping was perfectly acceptable for these applications.
However, for books, stationery, fine art, and other high-quality uses, a purer cellulose pulp was essential. This is where chemical processes came into play. Methods like the sulfite process (developed in the 1860s) and the sulfate (Kraft) process (1879) used chemical solutions to dissolve most of the lignin while preserving the cellulose fibers. While rhe development of these methods took about three decades, the resulting pulp was not only stronger but also easier to bleach, enabling the production of brighter, more durable paper suitable for archival, artistic, and literary purposes. These innovations laid the foundation for modern, high-quality papermaking, ensuring that prints and books could stand the test of time. By 1880, chemically purified wood pulp overtook rag-based paper in volume. This marked a monumental shift in the industry.
Overcoming problem 3: Paper color and brightness. Once wood pulp became the standard for papermaking, mills faced another challenge: color. Natural wood pulp, even without lignin, often remained off-white or grayish, so producing a bright white sheet required bleaching.
By the 1920s, chlorine-based bleaches were widely adopted to whiten paper. While effective at brightening, chlorine treatments eventually raised environmental concerns, prompting mills to explore less harmful methods, such as chlorine dioxide (ECF) or oxygen-based bleaching (TCF).
Bleaching served a dual purpose: it not only brightened the paper but also helped remove residual lignin, significantly improving paper longevity by preventing yellowing over time.
From the 1840s to the 1920s—a span of less than 80 years—continuous advancements in pulping, chemical processing, and machine technology transformed wood pulp into a scalable industrial material. Mills produced massive rolls of paper on large, mechanized machines, revolutionizing paper availability and affordability for everyday use, newspapers, books, and office paper.
Overcoming problem 4: optimizing papers for graphics. By the 1950s, another need emerged - paper coating. As halftone and color printing grew, coated papers offered sharper images and more vivid colors. Manufacturers began to apply coatings made of clay, calcium carbonate, titanium dioxide, and binders that help the coating adhere to the base. This process would become critical in photography, since photographic prints depend on a well-prepared surface—either for hosting a photosensitive emulsion (darkroom papers) or for receiving microscopic ink droplets (inkjet papers).
Overcoming problem 5: environmental impact. The sheer scale of modern papermaking has a big environmental impact. Packaging, printing, writing, and sanitary products all compete for raw pulp. The rise of e-commerce has created a surge in demand for packaging paper and cardboard. With every order comes a box, filler paper, labels, and inserts. Most of which are used once and discarded.
About 40% of the world’s harvested wood goes into paper production, half of this is used for packaging materials. A single ton of dry paper might require evaporating around two tons of water, requiring high-temperature steam or forced hot air.
Many paper mills today have adopted efficient water reuse systems, allowing mills to filter and recycle water multiple times, minimizing the strain on local water sources and protecting surrounding ecosystems. Additionally, many mills operate on a sustainable forestry model, ensuring that for every tree harvested, one or more are planted. Many also source their wood from FSC-certified forests, which are managed to promote biodiversity and long-term sustainability.
Recycling can help reduce the strain, and many countries have established robust wastepaper collection systems. When used paper is sorted, de-inked, and cleaned, it can be turned back into pulp and reused. Each cycle shortens fiber length slightly, so eventually it needs mixing with virgin fiber to keep up strength. Still, higher recycling rates mean fewer new trees are cut, which can help preserve forests.
Using old clothes to create new rag paper seems like a natural solution, especially since cotton and linen rags were once the primary materials for high-quality paper before wood pulp became standard. In ancient times, people used old clothes, sails, and even wound bandages to produce paper—a true example of resourcefulness and reuse.
But today, rag paper production is a small market, held back by challenges in cost, labor, and fiber quality. Modern clothes are often made from blended fabrics (cotton mixed with synthetics), making them unsuitable for papermaking. Dyes need to be stripped, buttons and zippers removed, and fibers sorted by quality. Compared to wood pulp, recycling textiles into paper is labor-intensive and expensive.As a result, it’s simply cheaper and easier to dump old clothes into landfills than to recycle them into paper.
However, with growing demand for sustainability, some manufacturers are exploring upcycled textile papers, especially for art prints, luxury stationery, and eco-friendly packaging. If the push for closed-loop recycling continues, we may see more of these innovative papers in the future—turning textile waste into something both useful and beautiful.
Genuine photographic paper represents only 3-5% of total global paper production. Yet, environmental awareness influences photographic paper as well. Alternative fibers like bamboo, hemp, and bagasse (from sugarcane) also see growing interest. Bamboo can yield more cellulose per acre than many tree species, making it relatively efficient. Hemp also grows quickly and has strong, long fibers. Esparto grass was historically used in Great Britain for printing papers, providing good opacity and smoothness. Each of these materials can help diversify the fiber supply. But none has displaced wood on a large scale, mainly because wood-based papermaking infrastructure is so entrenched, and supply chains for trees have been built up for over a century. The choices keep expanding, as paper mills develop new ways to reduce water use, recover chemicals, and minimize pollution.
Unlike the other 4 major challenges in papermaking, the environmental impact of papermaking remains an unsolved problem. While there has been progress, the scale of waste, deforestation, and pollution from paper production is still significant, especially as packaging demand surges with e-commerce. This is the hardest problem to solve because it requires systemic change—from manufacturers to consumers, from forest management to waste management. Unlike the technical breakthroughs of the past, this challenge is about behavior, policy, and sustainable practices.
4. PAPER IN THE DARK: THE ERA OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING
Darkroom photo paper, a cornerstone of photographic printing, has its origins intertwined with art papers and printing techniques. While darkroom paper is distinct from traditional art paper in its chemical makeup, the two share a lineage rooted in the desire to preserve and present images with clarity and longevity. Papers remains the essential foundation upon which artists and photographers bring their visions to life.
Gradual improvements in papermaking during the 15th and 16th centuries opened the door to new artistic possibilities: printmaking. Cotton-based paper became the favorite choice for artists and printers. It was valued for its strength and even ink absorption.
Improvements in papermaking made paper smoother, stronger, and cheaper than ever before. Techniques like woodcut, engraving, and etching emerged. These methods required strong, durable paper that could hold fine detail and withstand the pressure of the press, even when wet. Cotton papers had these qualities. They ensured sharp, detailed reproductions, making them essential for artists and printers alike. In the late 18th century, lithography expanded artistic expression. It created new demand for smooth, high-quality papers. These papers were essential for capturing subtle tonal variations.
By the 19th century, early photographic prints, such as salt prints or albumen prints, were made by treating cotton papers with light-sensitive solutions. These darkroom papers had to be chemically stable, able to withstand prolonged immersion in developing baths, and capable of holding fine detail and tonal gradations. As photography evolved, gelatin-based emulsions replaced albumen. Silver halide crystals dispersed in a gelatin layer introduced the classic silver gelatin process still known among film photographers. This new process involved several chemical steps: developer, stop bath, and fixer, followed by a thorough rinse. The paper needed to withstand repeated soaking without falling apart. A lot of coating layers and ability to withstand chemical exposure put another demand on photographic prints – heavy weight papers. Printmakers and watercolors artists had these papers, which photography industry gladly used too.
The search for better coating and improved image quality led to the development of baryta papers. The baryta layer, made from barium sulfate, was added between the paper base and the light-sensitive emulsion. This innovation offered several key benefits. It brightened the paper by creating a smooth, reflective white surface, enhancing highlights and overall image clarity. It also expanded the tonal range, producing deeper blacks (D-max) and richer contrast. Additionally, the baryta layer acted as a barrier, preventing the emulsion from soaking into the paper fibers. This not only improved sharpness but also preserved fine details in the image.
By the early 20th century, baryta-coated papers became the gold standard for darkroom prints. They laid the groundwork for modern fiber-based baryta papers, which are still used today in archival inkjet printing. These papers are prized for their lustrous tonal range and archival stability, making them a top choice for high-quality prints.
As photography evolved, so did the demands for new types of paper. Although fiber-based photo paper produced beautiful results, it had a significant downside: processing took a long time. The paper absorbed chemicals and water, requiring extended washing to prevent residual fixer from causing fading. Drying was slow, and prints could curl or warp if not dried carefully. Labs handling large volumes of prints sought a faster, more efficient solution. This need led to the development of resin-coated (RC) paper in the mid-20th century.
RC papers became commercially significant in the mid-1970s. The innovation involved sealing the paper fibers between thin polyethylene layers on both the front and back. This design allowed the light-sensitive emulsion to rest on a plastic surface rather than directly on raw paper. As a result, chemicals couldn’t penetrate the paper base deeply during processing. Washing and drying times were dramatically reduced, and prints emerged with a consistent gloss. Labs could now handle larger print volumes without waiting hours for fiber-based paper to dry.
Finished prints could be produced in minutes, and the paper’s variety of surfaces—glossy, satin, or pearl finishes—made it ideal for everyday photography. RC papers were also cheaper to produce because they didn’t require expensive cotton fibers, unlike traditional fiber-based baryta papers. The polyethylene layers on both sides sealed the base, making it water-resistant and durable, even without the superior fiber strength of cotton. This lower production cost allowed RC papers to dominate the consumer market, especially for everyday photo prints and high-volume lab processing. By the 1980s, RC papers dominated both the consumer and commercial markets.
However, RC prints sometimes lacked the nuanced tonal range and subtle sheen of fiber-based baryta papers. As a result, collectors and galleries continued to favor fiber-based papers, a preference that persists to this day.
During these decades, darkroom papers diversified. Some were designed specifically for color printing, with multiple emulsion layers for cyan, magenta, and yellow dyes. Others specialized in black-and-white printing, offering varied surface finishes and tonal characteristics. Major manufacturers like Ilford, Kodak, Agfa, and Fuji competed by refining emulsion formulations, surface textures, and resin layers. Ilford, for instance, introduced variable contrast (VC) papers that allow photographers to change contrast using colored filters without swapping paper grades. This was a big convenience leap.
At the same time, smaller specialist brands emerged, catering to artists seeking unique looks such as warm-tone or cool-tone black-and-white papers. Even today, one can find fiber-based photo papers that are newly formulated for better blacks, or that incorporate less harmful chemistry. RC papers also continued to evolve, with improved polyethylene coatings that reduce color shifts and dryness issues.
Yet the fundamental difference remains: fiber-based tends to be the choice for archival, exhibit-quality black-and-white prints that some collectors pay high prices to own. RC is widely used in labs, schools, or quick-turnaround contexts. Many photographers appreciate that RC prints can look very good while costing less time and money. But for a purist who wants the hallmark “depth” and tangibility, fiber-based still stands supreme, bridging 19th-century tradition and 20th-century refinements.
Despite their differences, RC papers laid the groundwork for the development of modern inkjet printing papers. Their polyethylene coatings, surface textures, and focus on consistent, quick processing became the template for the archival, fine-art, and photographic inkjet papers used by photographers and artists today.
5. FROM LIGHT TO INK: THE RISE OF INKJET PAPER
As home computers and digital cameras proliferated, printing technology raced to keep up. By the early 2000s, inkjet technology had advanced to the point where home printers could produce semi-professional photo prints, leading to the development of the modern inkjet printing industry. Printer manufacturers raced to innovate in areas such as ink composition, ink types, printing heads, papers, paper coatings, and the software that controlled the printers.
The rise of inkjet printing created new demands for paper. Unlike darkroom prints, inkjet prints relied on tiny droplets of ink—either dye-based or pigment-based—fired through nozzles onto the paper. This introduced an entirely new challenge: controlling how those droplets spread. Without a specialized coating, ink would feather or bleed, producing fuzzy lines and dull colors.
The solution came from advancements in paper coatings, building on technologies pioneered in RC (resin-coated) papers. Just as RC papers sealed the paper fibers with polyethylene layers to prevent chemical absorption during darkroom printing, modern inkjet papers adopted specialized surface coatings to control ink behavior, maintain sharp detail, and enhance color vibrancy.
Two primary coating technologies emerged. Microporous coatings that contain minute pores that rapidly absorb the ink’s liquid, locking the pigments near the surface for sharper detail and faster drying. And swellable coatings that expand when they encounter ink, encapsulating the dyes or pigments within a polymer layer, which can enhance color vibrancy but dries more slowly.
Both approaches to inkjet paper coatings offered different advantages depending on the type of ink. Microporous coatings performed best with pigment-based inks, known for their longevity and fade resistance, while swellable coatings were more compatible with dye-based inks, offering deeper color saturation and a glossy finish.
Further innovations continued to improve the quality and durability of inkjet art papers. Some coatings included ceramic or silica particles, which enhanced color density and sharpness. To protect against fading from light exposure, manufacturers added anti-UV agents, increasing the paper’s longevity. Additionally, baryta-like layers reintroduced the deep blacks (D-max) and rich tonal range that photographers had cherished in fiber-based darkroom prints.
Thus, the inkjet industry built on the legacy of RC papers—adapting their layered construction and surface treatments to meet the demands of digital printing. Today’s fine art inkjet papers—often cotton-based with baryta-like coatings—offer a blend of traditional darkroom aesthetics and modern digital precision, making them a top choice for artists, photographers, and collectors alike.
SUMMARY: THE STORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY IS THE STORY OF PAPER
The evolution of photographic papers is a story of innovation built on the tradition of visual arts. It began with cotton fine art papers, prized for their strength, texture, and longevity, which had long been used for paintings, prints, and drawings.
When photography emerged in the 19th century, it borrowed heavily from the world of fine art papers. Photographers needed papers that could hold rich tones, sharp details, remain chemically stable, and last for generations. Cotton paper became the standard for photographic prints due to its strength and durability.
However, photographs required a light-sensitive surface, which led to the development of specialized coatings. Among these, the baryta coating became essential. It provided a smooth base for the gelatin emulsion and enhanced contrast and depth, producing the deep blacks and tonal richness we recognize in traditional black-and-white prints.
However, darkroom printing had limitations. It was slow, labor-intensive, and chemical-heavy. As photography grew in popularity, labs needed a faster, more efficient solution. This demand gave rise to a radical new invention: resin-coated (RC) papers.
RC papers, introduced in the mid-20th century, revolutionized photo printing. By sealing the paper base between polyethylene layers, RC papers prevented chemicals from soaking into the fibers. This innovation made washing and drying much faster, allowing labs to produce high volumes of prints quickly. RC papers soon became the industry standard for consumer and commercial photography.
Surprisingly, RC paper technology became the foundation for modern inkjet papers. Inkjet papers borrowed the multi-layered coating approach from darkroom RC papers, adjusting it to control how tiny droplets of ink interacted with the surface. Microporous coatings replaced baryta layers to hold pigment inks and lock colors close to the surface. Swellable coatings were introduced to absorb dye-based inks, enhancing color vibrancy.
Now, with advances in ink formulations, print heads, and software, we have come full circle. Modern inkjet technology allows us to print on the same types of cotton papers used in the 1500s and 1600s, but with unmatched color accuracy, resolution, and longevity.
The legacy of fine art papers shaped darkroom photography, which gave rise to RC papers, and finally evolved into the modern inkjet papers we use today. Centuries of craftsmanship now meet the cutting edge of digital innovation, offering artists, photographers, and collectors an unparalleled range of creative possibilities.
SO, DOES PAPER STILL MATTERS?
Yeah, it’s a fair question. This wasn’t meant to be a deep history dive on papermaking. We only scratched the surface. So why bring any of this up then? Because paper matters, and I want you to see it differently, to really understand what’s behind every print, what makes it into an art.
First, to show you that the tradition of printing, which began in the 1500s, is still alive today—carried forward by modern inkjet technology.. We didn’t suddenly wake up to inkjet printers and glossy papers. It took 500 years of innovation to get here. Walk into any decent art store today, and you’ll see notepads and art papers that are almost identical to those used by artists centuries ago. This isn’t just nostalgia—it’s a triumph of human creativity and craftsmanship.
Despite all our technological progress, we haven’t actually come much further in papermaking. If it weren’t for the Industrial Revolution, which enabled the shift to wood-based papers, we would still be using cotton rag papers—and they would still be good enough. Cotton papers remain a superior material, prized for their strength and longevity. But without cheap, mass-produced wood-based papers, we would never have gained widespread access to books, knowledge, and education. It was mass paper production that democratized information and shaped modern society. Without it, we would not be where we are today.
Second, to show you that artistic expression and technological progress are inseparable.
We aren’t born photographers, painters, or printmakers. We respond to the tools of our time or push for new ones. Thousands of years ago, people wanted to create just as we do now. They painted on cave walls with burned sticks, then on the walls of their homes and religious buildings, and later on wooden tablets. But oil painting on canvas didn’t exist until canvas and suitable pigments were invented. Two hundred years ago, there were no photographers—not because people didn’t want to capture life, but because cameras didn’t exist. Inkjet printmakers are only a generation old because the technology is new.
Yet, through every era, the driving force has remained the same: the human desire to express, create, and understand the world. What photographers do today is what painters did centuries ago—they recreate the world through their art and, in doing so, seek to understand it more deeply.
People often credit business and industry for driving progress—money, after all, is seen as the vehicle of change. But without demand, money can’t be made. It’s artists who push society forward. They challenge the present, question the status quo, and inspire new possibilities by imagining alternative futures. Technology alone isn’t enough; it needs a bold vision to guide it.
And this brings us to why paper matters.
The value of a print is not in the paper itself. Paper is just a medium—it can’t perform magic. The true value of a print lies in what it can do that digital images cannot. A print can remind us of someone or something every day. It can calibrate our mood. It can motivate us to pursue our dreams. A print creates a real, physical presence in our lives.
And yet, paper isn’t just a background. It’s part of the experience. It’s both the medium and the message. The right paper draws us in; the wrong paper pushes us away. A print is physical—something you can touch, view from different angles, frame, hang, or place anywhere you choose. It exists here and now because you brought it into your space. It didn’t just appear in your Instagram feed—you invited it in. And the objects we surround ourselves with shape who we are. Sure, a print won’t bark like a dog or purr like a cat, but its presence leaves an imprint. It becomes part of our space, our routine, our life—the life we choose. Getting a print is a choice, and like any art, its only purpose is to make you happy. That’s the power of printing—and why paper still matters.
And that brings me to my last point.
Paper itself is a product of human ingenuity. Papyrus was simple—just pressed plant fibers—but paper was something entirely different. It was a breakthrough: complex, refined, and revolutionary. Yet, we rarely stop to appreciate it. Paper surrounds us every day, but its diversity is astonishing. From brown shipping boxes to sleek Apple packaging, from soft tissue paper to glossy magazines, from passports and money to books, wallpapers, and gift wrap—it’s all paper, yet each type is engineered for a unique purpose.
Inkjet papers are no different. They have their own technical standards—for ink absorption, color vibrancy, and archival stability. But the best papers go far beyond these basics. They represent a blend of art and science, giving photographers and artists a surface worthy of their work. And yet, if photographers fail to notice the difference between glossy paper and baryta, or if collectors don’t understand why cotton papers are more expensive than standard ones, we all lose something. We lose our connection to history.
Because art is more than technical mastery—it is about choice. It is about making a deliberate, conscious decision: to use one particular ink and not another. To choose this paper and reject all others. It is about having the conviction that only this combination will achieve the intended expression.
Non-artists may laugh at this. They may see artists as picky, impractical, even obsessive. But this is precisely how great art is made. It is not made by accident or boredom. It is made through a systematic approach—an attempt to understand the world through experimentation and refinement. In art, every choice is a variable in a hypothesis, and changing even one element changes the result. That is why materials matter. Paper matters. Ink matters. Every choice is part of the statement.
But art is more than just experimentation. It is about being in touch with something larger than ourselves.
People often say that humans have a deep need to connect with something greater than their own life. Some seek this connection through children, others through religion, politics, or community service. But art is also that lifeline.
Art connects us across time—all the way back to the first paintings on cave walls. It predates any known religion, political system, or social order. Art is a direct line to the most fundamental questions of human existence:
- Who are we?
- Where did we come from?
- Where are we going?
- What can we create in the short time we are here?
This is why art matters. And this is why paper matters. Because paper is more than a surface—it is a bridge. A bridge between past and present, between artist and viewer, and between ourselves and something timeless.
In fact, if you think about it—it’s not about paper at all.
A print on paper is a time window, and it goes far beyond its surface. In an age where everything vanishes into the digital void, a print on paper stands as something decisively permanent.
It can fade, age, and even crack. It can grow old, as we do. But it will never change what it depicts. It remains loyal to its original message.
And when you live with it, it becomes part of your space, part of your life.
One day, when you are 60, it will remind you of your ideals and ambitions from when you were 30.
- What else in your life does that?
- What else has the power to turn back the clock and show you your younger self?
- What else can remind you of your humanity—of time that has passed and of how little time remains?
- What else can remind you, so beautifully, of your mortality?
So, the next time you hold a print, pause.
Don’t just see the image. Feel the paper.
Read about it. Learn its story.
Connect to 500 years of human invention, creativity, and passion.
Feel its permanence.
Because one day, you may forget your younger self.
But the print will remember.
A print is what shapes us, what moves us, what reminds us—
of who we were and who we still hope to be.
And paper is how we keep that promise.
Paper holds us accountable.
Because without paper—there is no print.
End of Part I
Now that you have some understanding of the history of paper, in Part II we will explore modern inkjet printing papers and their coatings.
RESOURCES & NEXT STEPS
DO IT
Go to your local art store and check the notepads. Notice the brands—Canson, Hahnemühle, Fabriano, Arches—these same brands now make inkjet papers. Look at the purpose and texture of the papers: there are papers for acrylic, watercolor, markers, and calligraphy, each with its own feel. Inkjet papers offer the same variety—matte, glossy, smooth, rough, thick, thin, natural white, bright white. So what you ask? Well, it gives you are visual real-life confirmation that fine art inkjet papers come from a long tradition of quality craftsmanship. The same companies that have perfected papers for artists over centuries are now applying that expertise to inkjet printing. And just like choosing the right paper matters for painting or drawing, it matters for printing too. Texture, weight, and finish all affect how your image looks and feels - how inks are absorbed, how colors are rendered. Understanding this helps photographers choose the right paper to bring out the best in their prints. And it helps collectors visualize how an image might look on different papers and why that choice matters.
READ IT
1.Britannica has a great article with detailed information on papermaking. It’s a great starting point if you want to dive into the actual chemistry, machinery, and paper-making processes. I prefer it over Wiki’s much shorter version.
2.Book: On Paper: The Everything of Its Two-Thousand-Year History by Nicholas A. Basbanes. A fascinating dive into the history of papermaking, blended with the author’s personal experiences in papermaking workshops around the world. While the focus is on paper for books rather than photographic paper, there’s plenty for photographers and art collectors to learn. It’s well-written, insightful, and packed with engaging stories. Even if papermaking isn’t part of your everyday life, this book quickly pulls you in and keeps you hooked. It is available both as paper and e-book version.
3.Book: Paper: Paging Through History by Mark Kurlansky. This book is a great sequel to On Paper, offering a big-picture perspective on the invention of paper. Rather than focusing on how paper is made, it explores why, where, and when paper was invented and developed—and why it matters. It provides plenty of food for thought, especially if you already know the basics—another reason why On Paper is a great starting point. Anyway, this book is engaging, sharp, and provocative. It challenges how you see the world, technology, and human evolution. Available in both paperback and e-book formats.
4.Book: The Papermaker's Companion: The Ultimate Guide to Making and Using Handmade Paper by Helen Hiebert. A great book on making paper at home, using many of the same principles from pre-industrial papermaking. Even if you don’t plan to make your own paper, it offers a hands-on understanding of small-scale papermaking and helps you appreciate large-scale factory production and modern automation. Available in both paperback and e-book formats.
WATCH IT
1.Check this 11-minute documentary on traditional cotton art paper making in the UK, done entirely by hand. (The embedded link doesn’t show the video so use the link instead)
2.Did you know you can make paper at home from recycled paper? And it’s easier than you might think. The process is similar to commercial papermaking, but you start halfway since you’re using existing paper. This video shows you how it’s done.
3.Good video showing and explaining the complete process of modern papermaking on large scale.
4.Animated video of modern papermaking process.
5.A walk-through of a modern papermaking factory in Asia.
6.A walk-though of a traditional Korean manual papermaking process.
7.A short reel showing how Canson Infinity manufactures one of their premium cotton inkjet papers “Somerset Enhanced”, at St. Cuthberts Mill, England.
8. A team from the University of Iowa’s Center for the Book accomplished an impressive feat: making 2,000 sheets of handmade paper in a single workday in 2016, using traditional papermaking processes. Fun to see this level of dedication.